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Punjab ( ; , ) is a , , and historical region in , located in its northwestern part, comprising areas of modern-day and . It is primarily inhabited by the . is its largest city and historic capital, with other major cities including , , , , , , and in Pakistan; alongside , , , , , , , , and in India.

Punjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to the as early as the ancient Indus Valley civilization, dating back to ,

(2026). 9780773540705, McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. .
followed by migrations of the Indo-Aryan peoples. Agriculture has been the chief economic feature of the Punjab and formed the foundation of . The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following the during the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, and has been described as the " of both India and Pakistan."

Following Alexander the Great's invasion in the 4th century BCE, Chandragupta Maurya allied with Punjabi republics to establish the .

(2016). 9788120804333, Motilal Banarsidass. .
Successive reigns of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, , and followed, but were ultimately defeated by Eastern Punjab such as the , , , , and .
(2010). 9781108009416, Cambridge University Press. .
(1986). 9788120800267, Motilal Banarsidass. .
In the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Punjab faced devastating Hunnic invasions, yet the emerged triumphant, ruling over .
(2023). 9783382119294, BoD – Books on Demand. .
The 8th century CE witnessed the rise, known for defeating the and the . Concurrently, the and controlled eastern Punjab, resisting invasions.
(1994). 9788120609426, Asian Educational Services. .
took hold in Western Punjab under Ghaznavid rule. The Delhi Sultanate then succeeded the Ghaznavids in which the and are described as Punjabi origin.
(2026). 9780520325128, University of California Press.
The 15th century saw the emergence of the in south Punjab, acclaimed for its victory over the . After the 's decline in the 18th century, Punjab experienced a period of anarchy. 12 along with Muslim Chattha, , Tarar, Chisti and States fought for political ascendancy. In 1799 CE, the established its rule, undertaking conquests into the - and -held territories.

The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century the Punjab region was divided into three, with the in the west, the Delhi in the east and the in the south. Under the until the Partition of India in 1947, the Punjab Province encompassed the present Indian states and union territories of Punjab, , , , and , and the Pakistani regions of Punjab, and Islamabad Capital Territory.

The predominant ethnolinguistic group of the Punjab region are the , who speak the Indo-Aryan . are the majority in West Punjab (Pakistan), while are the majority in (India). Other religious groups include , Christianity, , , , and .

Etymology
The name Punjab is of origin, with its two parts ( and ) being cognates of the words and , of the same meaning.
(2026). 9789383064410, Aleph Book Company.
The word pañjÄb is thus calque of Indo-Aryan "pañca-áp" and means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers , , , , and ."Punjab." Pp. 107 in Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.), vol. 20. All are of the , the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in the , in which one of the regions is named as Panchanada ().
(2026). 9781615302024, Britannica Educational Publishing. .
(2026). 9788173809903, Punjabi University. .
Earlier, the Punjab was known as in the or Hapta Hendu in Avesta, translating into "The Land of Seven Rivers", with the other two being Indus and .
(2026). 9780755624591, I.B.Tauris.
The ancient referred to the region as Pentapotamía (), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab.. 1827. Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia Indica ''A. Weber. p. 4:

"That part of India which today we call by the Persian name ''Penjab'' is named Panchanada in the sacred language of the Indians; either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge, used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word, e.g., Doab and Nilab. Therefore, it is probable that the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the most ancient Indian poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; for Panchála, which English translations of the Ramayana render with Penjab...is the name of another region, entirely distinct from Pentapotamia...."

History
Ancient period
The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, the Indus Valley Civilization which flourished from about and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between and .
(2026). 9781598846591, ABC-CLIO. .
Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as . The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the . The epic battles described in the are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. The , , , Andhra, , ( settlers of the Punjab), , and others sided with the in the great battle fought at .Buddha Parkash, Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, p 36. According to Fauja Singh and L.M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."Joshi, L. M., and Fauja Singh. History of Panjab, Vol I. p. 4.

Invasions of Alexander the Great (c. 4th century BCE)
The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as , who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between rivers Hydaspes () and Acesines (); had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities. He (alongside ) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of which was ruled by his extended family. When the armies of Alexander crossed the Indus in its eastward migration, probably in , he was greeted by the ruler of Taxila, . Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused. This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus. Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BCE; the exact site remains unknown. The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources that were exaggerated.

Alexander later founded two cities— Nicaea at the site of victory and Bucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory of , who died soon after the battle. Later, would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant. Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed. When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".Rogers, p.200 Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.

(2026). 9781441193797, Bloomsbury.
Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.

After Alexander's death in , became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in , became the new regent.

(2026). 9781405112109, Wiley.
According to , Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the . However, Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.
(2026). 9788185229928, Aligarh Historians Society / . .

Mauryan Empire (c. 320–180 BCE)
Chandragupta Maurya, with the aid of , had established his empire around . The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in the university at Taxila to educate him in the arts, sciences, logic, mathematics, warfare, and administration. ' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which if true would mean his rule started earlier than . As Alexander never crossed the , so his territory probably lay in the . With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.
(2016). 9788120804333, Motilal Banarsidass. .
He then defeated the Nanda rulers in to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion of , while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants. The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.
(1999). 9788170227632, Concept Publishing Company. .
The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.
(2016). 9788120804333, Motilal Banarsidass. .

Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed to , the author of the . Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.

Medieval period
Hindu Shahis (c. 820–1022 CE)
In the 9th century, the dynasty originating from the region of , replaced the Taank kingdom, ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan. The tribe of the /, formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian . The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to the . He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of Amr al-Layth's preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raiding around 900 CE.

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE. Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas. This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).

Turkic rule (c. 1030–1320 CE)
The in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab, gradually declining as a power until the conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler .
(1979). 9788120706170, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. .
Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the .

Tughlaq dynasty (c. 1320–1410 CE)
The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 in when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq after defeating at the Battle of Lahrawat.

During Ghazi Malik's reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part of ). His first attempt was a failure.William Lowe (Translator), , Volume 1, pages 296-301 Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again. Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 233-234 This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over 1324–1325 CE, after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.

After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach. Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopædia Britannica He attacked and plundered , , , , Mithila and many other regions in India. Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 236–237 His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions became commonplace all over the Indian subcontinent. Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 235–240 Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351 while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in and .Vincent A Smith, , Chapter 2, pp. 242–248, Oxford University Press

After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, the Tughlaq empire was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence; it was at this point that Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Ghazi Malik's nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title . His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from and according to the historian . The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh, while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured , desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute.

(2026). 9780415329194, Psychology Press. .
He also laid siege to the and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute.
(1990). 9788170720294, ABS Publications. .
During this time, Tatar Khan of attacked Punjab, but he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.
(1994). 9788120609426, Asian Educational Services. .

Sayyid dynasty (c. 1410–1450 CE)
established the , the fourth dynasty of the after the fall of the .
(2026). 9780520325128, University of California Press.

Following 's 1398 sack of , he appointed as deputy of (). He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.

(2026). 9781615301225, The Rosen Publishing Group. .
(2026). 9788121903646, S. Chand. .
Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty. Khizr Khan did not take up the title of , but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as Rayat-i-Ala(vassal) of the - initially that of Timur, and later his son . After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions. Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from and .
(1980). 9788121502276, Munshiram Manoharlal. .

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.

(2026). 9788121903646, S. Chand. .
(2026). 9780810855038, Scarecrow Press. .
He defeated the advancing , ruler of and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.
(1980). 9788121502276, Munshiram Manoharlal. .
Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion of and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.
(1980). 9788121502276, Munshiram Manoharlal. .

The last ruler of the Sayyids, , voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.

Langah Sultanate (c. 1450–1530 CE)
In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah (a tribe),
(1975). 9780195772203, Sindhi Adabi Board.
(1987). 9788185054285, Manohar. .
established the in after the fall of the . Husseyn Langah I (reigned 1456–1502) was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate. He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and captured and from the Lodis. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led by and Barbak Shah, as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.
(1998). 9789231034671, .

Early modern period
Mughal Empire (c. 1530–1700 CE)
The came to power in the early 16th century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital at . During the Mughal era, Saadullah Khan, born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists belonging to the Thaheem tribe
(1992). 9789694071305, Royal Book Company. .
from remained (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656. Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include Wazir Khan,
(2026). 9780500342091, Thames & Hudson.
,
(2026). 9788189093068, Lotus Press. .
and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh. The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century. As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region. Contested by the and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the , who expanded and established the Sikh Confederacy as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and territories north into the .

Pakpattan state (c. 1700–1730 CE)
Following the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the shrine's DÄ«wÄn was able to forge a political independent state centered on Pakpattan.
(1984). 9780520046603, University of California Press. .
In 1757, DÄ«wÄn 'Abd as-SubḥÄn gathered an army of his , attacked the Raja of , and thereby expanded the shrine's territorial holdings for the first time east of the Sutlej. Around 1776, the DÄ«wÄn, supported mainly by his Wattu , successfully repelled an attack by the Sikh , resulting in the death of the Nakai leader, Heera Singh Sandhu.

Sial dynasty (c. 1730–1799 CE)
The was established by the 13 Sial Chief Nawab Walidad Khan Sial in 1723.
(2020). 9780520355538, Univ of California Press. .
He gradually gained control of the lower , including the cities of , , and .

Next chief, Inayatullah Khan (r. 1747– 1787) was a successful general who won 22 battles against and the Multan chiefs.

The Sikh Empire invaded Jhang multiple times from 1801 to 1816 and annexed by the dynasty; Ahmad Khan Sial was awarded a Jagir by .

(2026). 9780755640355, I.B. Tauris. .

Modern period
Sikh Empire (c. 1799–1849 CE)
In the 19th century, Maharajah established the based in the Punjab. The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured , to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of the from a collection of autonomous .
(1990). 9780521637640, Cambridge University Press. .
At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the in the west to western in the east, and from in the south to in the north. It was divided into four provinces: , in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital; , also in Punjab; ; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the 19th most populous country at the time),'s The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to by the .

British Punjab (c. 1849–1947 CE)
The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars.
(1998). 9780521637640, Cambridge University Press.
Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small retained local rulers who recognized British authority. The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets. Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and became an important military installation. Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities. Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued. At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society. In 1919, Colonel ordered troops under command to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in . The Jallianwala massacre fueled the Indian independence movement. Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed. When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements. Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists. At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.

The had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, , Ajit Singh Sandhu, , , Kartar Singh Sarabha, , Choudhry Rahmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. (48%) became part of India, while (52%) became part of Pakistan.. Daily Times (10 May 2012). Retrieved 12 July 2013. The Punjab bore the brunt of the following partition, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.

(2026). 9780415565660, Routledge.
(2026). 9781134378258, Routledge.

The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party–led independence movement.Pritam Singh, Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy, Routledge, 19 February 2008, p.54 Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the whilst the Muslims eventually supported the Muslim League. Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer , in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.

Geography
The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century it referred to a relatively smaller area between the and the rivers.
(1998). 9780521637640, Cambridge University Press. .
(2026). 9788131718186, Pearson Education India. .

Sikh Empire
At its height in the first half of the 19th century, the Sikh Empire spanned a total of over .
(2020). 9781526777249, Pen & Sword Books Limited. .
(2016). 9780300186819, Yale University Press. .
(1972). 9780210271872, Asia Publishing House. .

The Punjab was a region straddling India and the Afghan . The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire:

After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the East India Company to launch the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate and the province of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of .
(1980). 9780140047523, Penguin Books.

Punjab (British India)
In British India, until the Partition of India in 1947, the Punjab Province was geographically a triangular tract of country of which the and its tributary the formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the Lower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from and . On the west it was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided from Baluchistan by the . To the south lay and , while on the east the rivers and separated it from the United Provinces. In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.

It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, , Delhi, and some parts of which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab, Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the North-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:

  1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division (including , , , , , , Delhi, , Jalandhar district, , Ludhiana district, , Firozpur district, , , , , , Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura district);
  2. Himalayan geographical division (including , , Simla Hill States, , , , and );
  3. Sub-Himalayan geographical division (including , , Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur District, , , , Rawalpindi District, and ;
  4. North-West Dry Area geographical division (including Montgomery District, , Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, , , , Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District).

Major cities
Historically, has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region, with a population of 11 million for the city proper. is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region. Other major cities are , , , , , , and are the other cities in Punjab with a city-proper population of over a million.

Climate
climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab, particularly for agriculture in the region. Climate is not uniform over the whole region, as the areas adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance. The Köppen climate classification generally classifies Punjab as having either a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) or a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh).

There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During summer, from mid-April to the end of June, the temperature may reach . The , from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals and systems. The transitional period after the monsoon season is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to at night and by day. During the transitional period from winter to summer, sudden and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.

Western Punjab
Central Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Demographics
Languages
[[File:Mother Tongue by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|
The dominant in each District of Pakistan, according to the 2017 Pakistan Census
]] The major language is , which is written in India with the script, and in Pakistan using the script. The language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab, whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by the language and is seen as a vernacular language

Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the various parts of the region. , , and other dialects are spoken in the north-central and northeastern parts of the region, while is spoken in south-central and southeastern sections. Meanwhile, is generally spoken across a wide belt covering the southwest, while in the northwest there are large pockets containing speakers of and .

+Linguistic demographics of Punjab Province ! rowspan="2" ! colspan="1"Percentage

Religions
Background
The Punjab is predominantly though Hinduism is the oldest of the religions practised by Punjabi people, however, the term Hindu was also applied over a vast territory with much regional diversity.
(2026). 9780773540705, McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. .
The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the (), centered primarily in the worship of .
(2013). 9781136383014, Routledge. .
(2018). 9781108428118, Cambridge University Press. .
: "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts ( karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime ( jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion ( maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life ( asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
See also The bulk of the was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE,
(1996). 9780521438780, Cambridge University Press. .
while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the and rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the , developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward.
(2026). 9780773540705, McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. .

Later, the spread of Buddhisim and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth of and in the Punjab. was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.

(2014). 9780199713547, Oxford University Press. .
There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.
(2014). 9780199713547, Oxford University Press. .
The region became predominantly due to missionary saints whose dot the landscape of the Punjab region.
(2020). 9781527557482, Cambridge Scholars Publishing. .

The rise of in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.

(2008). 9781134049462, Routledge. .
A number of Punjabis during the became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.

Colonial era
A number of Punjabis during the became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.
(2026). 9780773540705, McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. .
Additionally during the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among and was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

+Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of the (1881–1941)

+ Religious groups in Punjab Province (1881–1941) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		1881 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931 ! colspan="2"1941

+ Religion in West Punjab (1881–1941) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		1881 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931 ! colspan="2"1941
+ Religion in East Punjab (1881–1941) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		1881 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931 ! colspan="2"1941

+ Religious groups in the Indo—Gangetic Plain West geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		1881 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931 ! colspan="2"1941
The Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division included , , , , , , , , Jalandhar district, , Ludhiana district, , Firozpur district, , , , , , Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura District.

+ Religious groups in the Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		1881 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931 ! colspan="2"1941
The Himalayan geographical division included , , Simla Hill States, Bilaspur State, , , , and .

+ Religious groups in the Sub—Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		1881 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931 ! colspan="2"1941
The Sub−Himalayan geographical division included , , Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, , , , Rawalpindi District, and .

+ Religious groups in the North—West Dry Area geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		1881 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931 ! colspan="2"1941
The North−West Dry Area geographical division included Montgomery District, , Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, , , , Muzaffargarh District, Dera Ghazi Khan District, and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract.

Post-partition
In the present-day, the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include significant minority faiths, such as Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, , and Christians.

Sikhism, founded by is the main religion practised in the post-1966 Indian Punjab state. About 57.7% of the population of Punjab state is , 38.5% is , with the remaining population including Muslims, Christians, and . Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of , , Tarn Taran Sahib, and .

The Punjab was home to several Sufi saints, and Sufism is well established in the region. Also, revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.

+ Religious groups in the Punjab Region (2011 Census of India & 2017 Census of Pakistan) ! rowspan="2"Religious
group ! colspan="2"		Punjab
Region ! colspan="2"		Punjab
(Pakistan) ! colspan="2"		Punjab
(India) ! colspan="2"		 ! colspan="2" ! colspan="2" ! colspan="2"Islamabad ! colspan="2"
! 114,130,322 !107,541,602 535,489 1,781,342 2,158,684 149,881 1,911,877 51,447
! 54,159,083 !211,641 10,678,138 22,171,128 13,712,100 6,532,765 737 852,574
! 18,037,312 ! 16,004,754 1,243,752 570,581 79,896 138,329
! 2,715,952 !2,063,063 348,230 50,353 146,093 12,646 86,847 8,720
! 267,649 ! 45,040 52,613 166,231 1,805 1,960
! 160,759 !158,021 2,738
! 139,019 ! 33,237 7,514 18,449 78,659 1,160
Others ! 185,720 !15,328 98,450 44,760 15,803 8,950 1,169 1,260

Tribes
File:JatsAroundDelhi1868.jpg|Jats in Delhi (1868) File:Charles Shepherd and Arthur Robertson01.jpg|Rajputs in Delhi (1868) File:Grey-scale scan of a painting of a Hindu official or courtier (possibly identifiable as Misr Diwan Chand) of the court of the Sikh Empire.jpg|Brahmin in Lahore (c. 1799–1849) File:From left to right- A Gurkha, a Brahmin and a Sood.jpg|Left to right: Gurkha, Brahmin, and Shudra (Chuhra-Chamar) in Shimla (1868) File:Arain men in Lahore.jpg|Arains in Lahore (1868) File:Portrait of three unidentified Lahore carpenters (likely Tarkhan) with tools, ca.1862–72.png|Tarkhans in Lahore (c. 1862–1872) File:Two Gurjar (also transliterated as Gujjar, Gujar, Gurjara, & Gujjer) Men on a Pavement and a Woman in a Doorway in Delhi, Shepherd & Robertson (possibly), ca.1859–69.png|Gujjars in Delhi (c. 1859–1869) File:Portrait of an unidentified Arora Storekeeper from Lahore with coins in hand and in front of him, ca.1862–72.png|Arora in Lahore (c. 1862–1872) File:Portrait of two unknown Kumhar potters from Lahore, ca.1859–69.png|Kumhars in Lahore (c. 1859–1869)

The Punjab region is diverse. Historic census reports taken in the details the main castes are represented, alongside numerous subcastes and tribes (also known as JÄti or BarÄdarÄ«), formed parts of the various ethnic groups in the region, contemporarily known as , , , , , Paharis, and more.

+Tribes of Punjab Province (1881–1931) ! rowspan="2"Tribe ! colspan="2"1881 ! colspan="2"1891 ! colspan="2"1901 ! colspan="2"1911 ! colspan="2"1921 ! colspan="2"1931

Economy
The historical region of Punjab produces a relatively high proportion of the food output from India and Pakistan. The region has been used for extensive wheat farming. In addition, rice, cotton, , fruit, and vegetables are also grown.

The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. The Indian state of Punjab is currently the 16th richest state or the eighth richest large state of India. Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's foodgrain production. Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%. and has the highest per capita of any province.

Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of the , 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton. In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce. In the Punjab region of Pakistan, 42.3% of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector.

Alternatively, Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in the . Government schemes such as 'Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission' have brought enhanced employability in the private sector. , more than 32,000 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12,000 have been skill-trained.

See also

Notes
Bibliography

Further reading
  • Condos, Mark. The Insecurity State: Punjab and the Making of Colonial Power in British India (2020) excerpt
  • Quraishee Punjabi Adab De Kahani, Abdul Hafeez Quaraihee, Azeez Book Depot, Lahore, 1973.
  • Chopra Punjab as a Sovereign State, Gulshan Lal Chopra, Al-Biruni, Lahore, 1977.
  • Patwant Singh. 1999. The Sikhs. New York: Doubleday. .
  • The Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, 1971, Buddha Parkash.
  • Social and Political Movements in ancient Panjab, Delhi, 1962, Buddha Parkash.
  • History of Porus, Patiala, Buddha Parkash.
  • History of the Panjab, Patiala, 1976, Fauja Singh, L.M. Joshi (Ed).
  • The Legacy of the Punjab, 1997, R.M. Chopra.
  • The Rise Growth and Decline of Indo-Persian Literature, R.M. Chopra, 2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi. 2nd revised edition, published in 2013.
  • Sims, Holly. "The State and Agricultural Productivity: Continuity versus Change in the Indian and Pakistani Punjabs." , 1 April 1986, Vol. 26(4), pp. 483–500.

External links

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